Figure Skating

An Introduction to Figure Skating

Figure Skating is a sport with many dimensions. its many disciplines include: Singles Freestyle, Pairs Freestyle, Dance, Precision, Figures, and Moves-in-the-Field. More about them later. But first, what about the sport in general?
Skaters normally begin to skate in a group lesson environment, such as the USFSA's Learn-to-Skate program, often called "Basic Skills". Basic Skills classes are taught at most rinks on a regular basis throughout the year, and are a very cost-effective way to learn the basics of skating, whether your interest is in competitive figure skating, recreational skating, or hockey. When skaters have learned the basic elements of skating in this group environment, many will join a skating club and begin to further develop those skills by working with a private instructor, or "Pro". In order to join most clubs, skaters must have passed through, or have demonstrated capability in all of the skills through the "Basic 6" or "Basic Eights 8" level of the Basic Skills program.
Club skaters typically practice anywhere from 1 to as many as 12-15 hours per week, depending on their level of interest, competitiveness, and budget.
Many skaters compete, and when they do so, they compete within groups of other skaters with similar ability levels. These abilities are proven by the passage of official USFSA tests, taken in front of USFSA appointed judges at designated "test sessions". The tests establish several "Levels" of skating in each discipline. When you watch skating on TV you are watching skaters who have passed all the way to the top of the test structure, called the "Senior" level. But there are many levels below Senior, and most club skaters are somewhere on that ladder, moving upwards. Competitive skating levels are not determined by age, although often in competitions, age will be used as a secondary factor to group smaller "flights" of skaters within a single test level.

Freestyle

This is the discipline in Figure Skating that most spectators are familiar with. In Freestyle skating, or "Singles Freestyle" skating, a competitive skater performs a "program" that lasts anywhere from 1 to 4-1/2 minutes, is composed of elements such as jumps and spins, and is usually skated to music.
In freestyle competition, both "long" and "short" programs are skated. The "short program" (SP) at each level has a very specific list of elements which must be performed, and the skater is marked on his/her performance of those elements. Specific deductions are taken for missing or failed elements, and for added or repeated elements. The "long program" (Freeskate, or FS) has no list of required elements, only a general set of guidelines for what should or should not be included. Skaters are marked on both the quality of elements performed and the difficulty & content of the program. Contrary to popular belief, there are no required deductions for falls in a long program (in the 6.0 system of judging), however the skater is given no credit for having executed or tried the maneuver which caused the fall.
In Singles Freeskating, there are 8 Test Levels defined. With the exception of the very first one, each test is a program skated to music, with very specific required elements (sort of like a "short program" for competition). In the very first, or "PrePreliminary" freestyle test, the skater is asked to perform jumps and spins as separate elements. The singles freestyle test levels are: Pre-Preliminary, Preliminary, Pre-Juvenile, Juvenile, Intermediate, Novice, Junior, and Senior.

Pairs

Pairs skating is similar in many respects to singles freeskating, except that 2 skaters perform together. This adds all sorts of opportunities for new moves, such as lifts, throws, and pair spins and jumps. Pairs skating has both "long" and "short" programs, just like singles freeskating, and a test structure which includes: Preliminary, Juvenile, Intermediate, Novice, Junior, and Senior.

Dance

Ice Dancing is the discipline within skating that most emphasizes the "beauty" of the sport, rather than the athleticism. Dance emphasizes the techniques of edgework, flow, and motion of 2 skaters together in rhythmic interpretation of music. Ice Dancing has 2 main focus areas, the "Compulsory Dances", and the "Free Dances".
In compulsory dances, skaters are given a very specific pattern to follow. This pattern is shown in the form of a drawing which specifies the skater's moves right down to which foot is doing what particular step during every single "beat" of the music. Dancers are marked on their ability to skate the required pattern with demonstrated musical feeling.
In free dances, skaters get to make up their own "programs", within specified guidelines. These programs must demonstrate basic dance elements and steps in a musical, but not "theatrical" way. No jumps or spins are allowed, and dancers are required to stay close together throughout the course of the dance program.
The test structure for dance includes tests in compulsory dances, as well as free dances, and includes the following levels: Preliminary, pre-Bronze, Bronze, pre-Silver, Silver, pre-Gold, Gold, Junior International and Senior International.
Dance is one of the skating disciplines where age is no barrier. Many adults and senior adults nationwide enjoy this discipline for both its athletic value and its social aspects.

Moves-in-the-Field

Moves-in-the-Field, or "Moves" is a technical discipline, designed to help skaters improve their execution of the basic moves of skating. Edgework, turns, stroking, body control and extension are emphasized, mostly done with "power" as a primary focus. The Moves-in-the-Field discipline is primarily a test discipline, although some competitions are running Moves events. Moves-in-the-Field has test levels matching each singles freestyle level, and it is required that all skaters testing freestyle must pass the equivalent Moves test prior to taking the corresponding test in the freestyle or pairs disciplines.

Synchronized Skating

Synchronized Team Skating (once known as "precision skating") is a "team" event, with teams of 8 to as many as 24 skaters skating complicated routines similar to those performed by marching bands or drum corps. Large teams may execute patterns of incredible complexity and beauty. The teamwork and timing required makes this a challenging sport. Precision skating is another discipline where age is not a significant barrier, and adults nationwide enjoy and compete in this discipline.

Figures

Figures (or "Patch", as it was commonly called) is the discipline that gave our sport its name but the discipline is no longer part of the test requirements. Figures primarily emphasizes body control and edges/turns. Figures are the famous "figure 8s" for which the sport is named, and there are dozens of different ways to modify the basic figure 8 for testing purposes. Each variant emphasizes a certain skill, and all require great concentration and stamina to perform.

something about tennis

The Origins and Early History of Tennis

Ancient Egypt or Medieval France?

The earliest origins of tennis are a matter of some dispute. One side believes that the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans played a precursor to tennis. Drawings or descriptions of any tennis-like games have not been discovered, but a few Arabic words dating from ancient Egyptian times are cited as evidence. The theory says that the name tennis derives from the Egyptian town of Tinnis alongside the Nile and the word racquet evolved from the Arabic word for palm of the hand, rahat.
Aside from these two words, evidence for any form of tennis preceding the year 1000 is lacking, and most historians credit the first origins of the game to 11th or 12th century French monks, who began playing a crude handball against their monastery walls or over a rope strung across a courtyard. The game took on the name jeu de paume, which means "game of the hand." Many who dispute more ancient origins argue that tennis derived from the French tenez, which meant something to the effect of "take this," said as one player would serve to the other.
Popularity Brings Innovation
As the game became more popular, courtyard playing areas began to be modified into indoor courts, where the ball was still played off the walls. After bare hands were found too uncomfortable, players began using a glove, then either a glove with webbing between the fingers or a solid paddle, followed by webbing attached to a handle -- essentially a racquet. Rubber balls were still centuries away, so the ball was a wad of hair, wool, or cork wrapped in string and cloth or leather, then in later years, hand-stitched in felt to look something like a modern baseball.
The nobility learned the game from the monks, and some accounts report as many as 1800 courts in France by the 13th century. The game became such a popular diversion, both the Pope and Louis IV tried unsuccessfully to ban it. It soon spread to England, where both Henry VII and Henry VIII were avid players who promoted the building of more courts.
 By the year 1500, a wooden frame racquet strung with sheep gut was in common use, as was a cork-cored ball weighing around three ounces. The early tennis courts were quite different from the modern "lawn tennis" court most of us are used to. The early game matured into what is now called "real tennis," and England's Hampton Court, built in 1625, is still used today. Only a handful of such courts remain. It's a narrow, indoor court where the ball is played off walls that include a number of openings and oddly angled surfaces toward which the players aim for various strategic purposes. The net is five feet high on the ends, but three feet in the middle, creating a pronounced droop.
1850 - A Good Year
The game's popularity dwindled almost to zero during the 1700s, but in 1850, Charles Goodyear invented a vulcanization process for rubber, and during the 1850s, players began to experiment with using the bouncier rubber balls outdoors on grass. An outdoor game was, of course, completely different from an indoor game played off walls, so several new sets of rules were formulated.
1874 - The Birth of Modern Tennis
In 1874, Major Walter C. Wingfield patented in London the equipment and rules for a game fairly similar to modern tennis. In the same year, the first courts appeared in the United States. By the following year, equipment sets had been sold for use in Russia, India, Canada, and China.
Croquet was highly popular at this time, and the smooth croquet courts proved readily adaptable for tennis. Wingfield's original court had the shape of an hourglass, narrowest at the net, and it was shorter than the modern court. His rules were subjected to considerable criticism, and he revised them in 1875, but he soon left the further development of the game to others.
In 1877, the All England Club held the first Wimbledon tournament, and its tournament committee came up with a rectangular court and a set of rules that are essentially the game we know today. The net was still five feet high at the sides, a carryover from the game's indoor ancestor, and the service boxes were 26 feet deep, but by 1882, the specifications had evolved to their current form.

An Introduction to Tennis

Is tennis good for you?
Absolutely - tennis is a gentle way of exercising for beginners, and for more advanced players is a very thorough workout. Physical activity increases energy and also helps you to stay healthy, fending off germs and infections. Playing one set of tennis would give you thirty minutes moderate physical activity, not to mention plenty of fresh air!
How old do I have to be to start?
Obviously you have to be able to hold a tennis racket, but there are plenty of opportunities for youngsters. Mini Tennis is an excellent game for starting off young players under eight. Played with a scaled down racket, foam balls and a small court the game is a fun introduction to the full game.
How much will it cost?
Prices for coaching vary from club to club, but we always recommend keeping your lessons to half an hour or an hour, and to have group coaching.How can I develop my game?
One way is to go for an intensive week of tennis, or a break where you can play tennis at your leisure, there are tennis holiday companies offering holidays both in the US and abroad. You can see a list of these in Clubs and Camps.
Once you have found a court to play on and you start to play tennis with your friends, family or other players, you will naturally start to get a feel for the game. A way to develop your hand-eye co-ordination is to practice throwing and catching the ball either against a wall or with a partner. Your tennis coach will have many other games and exercises to help develop the correct movement, co-ordination and dexterity for tennis.
If the full court seems too big at first, play a scaled-down version of the game in the four service boxes of the court. As you start to become more confident you will start to use tactics. Hitting a ball that comes near to you is easier than running to hit a ball - therefore you'll soon realise that one aim is to try to make your opponent move in order to hit the ball. You will be better placed to hit each ball if you maintain a good position on the court before and after each shot, and you'll begin to understand the importance of good positioning. Don't get caught out of position to one side of the court or stuck half way between the baseline and the net.
Once you have mastered these basic principles, try to play to the weakness of your opponent. This might be their forehand, backhand, volley, smash, or perhaps running to the ball. Exploiting your opponent's weaknesses will help you to start controlling the game. Also, remember to use your own strengths as much as possible. You may enjoy serving, have a strong cross-court backhand, love to volley and play from the net - try to do more of what you enjoy!
And keep at it! The world's best players spend many hours training and improving their game. Success may not come immediately, so don't get downhearted if you don't always play at your best.
'Tennis is a battle of minds, just as much as it is a battle of playing ability. Trying to expose your opponent's weaknesses is one of the most vital and fascinating facets of tennis'

Hockey

Not only is hockey the fastest sport on ice, it's the "Coolest Sport on Earth" (do you understand what I mean?). There is much debate about how hockey started, how its name came to be, and who invented it. Well, none of those questions are answered. No one knows who invented hockey. The game that most resembles hockey is the old sport of hurling. Is that where the word "hockey" came from? This game is played with two teams who chase a flat rock or a hardened cow dropping down a surface (usually frozen) that is used as the rink. To win, they must shoot the object into a net made of vines and branches. Those who believe in this theory point to the curved branch they used as a stick called a hurley. Could this be the origin of the word "hockey"? Regardless to who invented the game, hockey has always been one of the world's favorite sports. The NHL as we know it today is constructed of 30 teams. Not only is hockey fun to watch, it has some of the most exciting players to watch. For example, in current times, you can see star players like "Super Mario" Lemieux, Sergei Federov, Mike Modano, and Brett Hull. There have also been some amazing players who have retired or stopped playing for one reason or another. For example, Wayne "The Great One" Gretzky, Bobby "The Golden Jet" Hull, Howie "The Stratford Streak" Morenz, and Gordie "Mr. Hockey" Howe. My page will bring you a few of the great players of now and then, equipment, positions, and more!




Great Hockey Players  Sergei Federov A highly skilled two-way center, Sergei Federov has long been know as one of the greatest hockey players to ever to step on the ice. Hockey fans got a preview of the "new breed" of players from the Soviet Union during the recent Olympic and World Championship tournaments, but nothing could prepare them for the speed and mobility of Sergei Federov, who carries the banner for all Russian skating masters. His ability to skate and stickhandle the puck at top speed always leaves defenders sprawling in his wake. Sergei was selected by the Red Wings in 1989 for the 1990-91 season. He instantly became a star player with thirty-one goals in his rookie season! In the 1993-94 season, Sergei was awarded the Hart Trophy. Some hockey fans suggest that the Selke Trophy is a non glamour award. Federov proved that notion wrong when he was awarded the NHL MVP in the 1993-94 season along with the Lester B. Pearson Award thanks to his 120 points. He was also awarded the Frank Selke Trophy (the one I mentioned earlier) as hockey's greatest defensive forward. He took the Selke three times in a row, which was a clear celebration of his brilliance as a legimate two-way threat. In the 1997-98 season and the 1998-99 season Federov won the Stanley Cup with Detroit and he led the Flying Wheels with twenty goals in 1998 postseason. Also in 1998, he won the silver medal with Russia in the Olympics. This season was his fourth All-Star Game, and he popped in two goals during the game. What a great player!

 Mario Lemieux In the 1984-85 season, Mario Lemieux was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the first round. Since his NHL debut when he scored his first goal on his first shot on his first shift against Boston on October 11th, he was destined to be one of the greatest players to ever wear a Penguins uniform. A native of Quebec, Mario was a junior scoring master and a Canadian Junior Player of the Year. As a rookie, he piled up 100 points which gave him obvious Rookie-of-the-Year honors. As a sophomore, he won the Pearson Award as the players' choice for MVP. In 1986-87, he broke the fifty goal barrier with fifty-four goals. Though Wayne Gretzky continued to own the overall scoring race for the next two years, Mario finally crested in 1987-88 with a league-high 70 goals, 98 assists, and 168 points that ended Gretzky's seven year Art Ross Trophy domination. In the 1989-90 season, injuries began to plague Mario, and he only played 59 games in that season. Despite his 123 points, the Penguins failed to make the playoffs, and there were rumors that, unlike his rival Gretzky, Lemieux couldn't take his team to a playoff title. Though diminished by a herniated disc that caused extreme pain, Mario continued to battle. He was cut to only 26 games in the 1991-92 season, but he returned in time for the playoffs. With 16 goals and 44 points in 23 playoff games, he took the Pens to their first even Stanley Cup. Lemieux was also awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoff MVP. In 1992-93, Mario was on the road to another scoring title when he was diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease. He had to sit out 24 games while undergoing radiation therapy. In a legendary comeback, he took his fourth Art Ross Trophy, his third Pearson Award, his second Hart Trophy, and the Bill Masterton Trophy. "Super Mario" took a year off to recuperate, and then he rejoined the Pens in the 1995-96 season and received his fifth scoring title with 69 goals and 161 points in 70 games. He also won the Hart Trophy for the third time. Mario retired from the game in 1997 after getting another scoring title. But, in 2000-01, "Super Mario" returned to the Pens as a player and the owner. He netted two goals and had one assist in his first return game. Mario was elected to be in the All Star Game, and he did an awesome job. It seems like his return has somewhat moved the Penguins, or at least some of their players, and they seem to be playing harder than ever.
Interesting Fact: Mario was the first player ever to score a goal in an empty net.

Wayne "The Great One" Gretzky The most accomplished player in the history of the NHL, Wayne Gretzky arrived in the NHL in 1979 and soon began rewriting the record books, winning every award, capturing championships, and reviving hockey in a part of the country where shinny was all but dead. Wayne was born in Ontario and he spent his childhood and teenage years competing against older and stronger competition. Yet, for some reason, he was always the best. In 1978, after two years of junior hockey, Wayne signed a contract with the WHA's Indianapolis Racers. Sold to the Edmonton Oilers, this is when he entered the NHL in 1979-80. As a rookie, he tied Kings veteran Marcel Dionne for the scoring lead, but lost the Art Ross Trophy when Dionne barely beat him in goals. In his third NHL season (1981-82), he scored his 50th goal in December. In 1983-84, Wayne took the Oilers to their first Stanley Cup. In the next four years, Edmonton won three more Cups with a brief interruption when Montreal won the Cup. In nine amazing seasons with the Oilers, Gretzky tallied 583 goals, 1,086 assists, 1,669 points in 696 games, notched 43 hat tricks, and scored 55 short-handed goals. He won seven Art Ross Trophies, eight Hart Trophies, five Pearson Awards, a pair of Conn Smythe Trophies, and his first Lady Byng Trophy. In 1998, he was traded to the Los Angeles Kings. Gretzky transformed the Kings from doormats to playoff contenders. In 1993, he carried the Kings to the Stanley Cup Finals against Montreal where they lost because of sudden-death goals. However, Gretzky proved he was "The Great One", winning three more scoring titles and three more Lady Byng Trophies. On October 15th, 1989, Wayne notched his 1,851st point, passing his hero Gordie Howe to become the NHL's all-time leading scorer. Five years later, on March 23rd, 1994, he netted the 802nd goal of his career to become the all-time leader in that department as well. He was traded to St. Louis in late 1995-96, but Wayne failed to work with right winger Brett Hull. As a free agent in the summer of 1996, he signed with the New York Rangers, where he reunited with ex-Oiler teammates Mark Messeir and Jari Kurri. Though 36 years old, "The Great One" was still among the league leaders in scoring. Like all players, he eventually retired and he is currently the owner of the Phoenix Coyotes.

                                      Howie "The Stratford Streak" Morenz

 One of the largest crowds ever to fill the Montreal Forum didn't come to watch a hockey game. They came to pay respects to maybe the most thrilling player to ever skate their rink. In March 1937, thousands of fans passed the coffin of Howie Morenz as he lay at center ice. Morenz, who died suddenly at age 35, was arguably the greatest player ever to wear the bleu, blanc, et rouge, of Les Habs. Morenz joined Montreal at age 21 and made his NHL debut in 1923-24. With excellent skating and stickhandling skills, Howie quickly won over the Canadians fans. As a rookie, he got his name on Montreal's first Stanley Cup when the Habs won a two-game set against Calgary of the Western Canada Hockey League. Morenz scored a hat trick in Game 1 and then scored the winning goal in Game 2. With explosive skating speed that earned him the nickname "The Stratford Streak" (after the Ontario town that he was born in), Howie began to dominate in 1927-28, when he led the National Hockey League in goals and he won his first scoring title. He also took home the Hart Trophy as the MVP. As played on the front line with Aurel Joliat and Art Gange (and later, Johnny "Black Cat" Gagnon), Morenz became one of the game's prominent snipers. In 1928-29, he was third overall in points, then he scored a career-high 40 goals the following year. Morenz led Montreal to another Stanley Cup over Boston in the two-game Cup Finals. In 1930-31, Montreal ruled the NHL. Howie Morenz led all scorers, taking his second scoring crown and second Hart Trophy. Morenz and the rest of the Habs went to the Stanley Cup Finals. They won the Cup again with a 2-0 victory. On January 28, 1937, Morenz crashed into the boards, braking his ankle and shattering bones in his leg. Morenz was hospitalized for several weeks. As he watched his hockey days end, he went into severe depression. On March 8th, he died in his sleep from a fatal heart attack. Those who knew him though, said that he died of a broken heart. All of NHL mourned the fallen hero.

Rugby

An Introduction to Rugby Union

Starting life as just an offshoot of football, rugby union is today a major outdoor sport in its own right. One of the two forms of rugby football (along with rugby league), it is generally considered the more popular, being played by men in over 100 countries in five continents and by women in 52 countries. Indeed, according to statistics from the International Rugby Board, approximately 3 million individuals aged 6 to 60 years regularly play rugby union.
A substantial reason for such figures is rugby union’s cross-sport appeal. It is typically compared to an array of other sports such as football (with the game tracing its origins back to the beautiful game), American Football (largely due to the emphasis on ball-in-hand in both games) and rugby league (for obvious reasons). As such, for any sports fan, there is something familiar and therefore attractive about rugby union. However, while such similarities make the basics of rugby union easy to pick up, to understand the game properly requires more than a little effort and patience (which is where we come in!).
Such nuances are perfectly logical considering the physical nature of rugby union. Statistics have shown that injuries in the sport have increased commensurately with the growth in rugby’s popularity. A look at the injury record of England’s Jonny Wilkinson, for example, will give you a sense of the physical demands of rugby union. As such, setting out detailed regulations on what can and cannot be done is the best possible safety guarantee both to individuals starting out in the game, and experienced professionals.
Nevertheless, the expansion of rugby union over the last two centuries is proof of how, with the proper safety precautions and on-field attitude, the enjoyment you get from playing or watching far outweighs any risks. Rugby union’s status as a worldwide sport is confirmed by the 85 national members of the International Rugby Board, and the old image of the game as divided into northern and southern hemispheres with just a few teams from each composing the sport in full is long gone. Instead, the modern rugby union is thriving, with the old core of England and the Home Nations, Australia, South Africa, France and New Zealand expanded to incorporate teams from Argentina, Fiji, USA, Italy, Japan, Canada and even Romania.

The Famous Haka

Frequent international and club level competitions illustrate the sport’s prosperity, while its global reach is confirmed every four years with the World Cup. First established in 1987, this tournament is today considered one of the world’s sporting highlights behind the FIFA World Cup and the Summer Olympics. Whereas the 1987 affair saw a cumulative audience of 300 million, just 16 years later the 2003 tournament attracted an incredible 3.5 billion viewers all together, with the event broadcast in 205 countries. The nearest equivalents at club level, the Heineken Cup in Europe and the Super 14 in the southern hemisphere attract millions of viewers in their own right, with the events broadcast in over 100 and 40 countries respectively.
Facts such as these have led to increasing calls from the International Rugby Board right down to the players for rugby union to be re-instated as an Olympic event. First included between 1900 and 1924 (with the USA remarkably winning two gold medals in 1920 and 1924 during highly truncated competitions), the Olympic board have been lobbied by many countries since the 1980s to reconsider their cancellation. There are positive omens as well, with the shorter ‘Sevens’ form of rugby union currently a part of the Commonwealth Games.
The greatest argument in favour of rugby union as an Olympic sport is the sheer number of adherents to the sport. At its best, the game is an incredibly entertaining, physically and mentally challenging affair. Moreover, with the proper guidance, it’s very easy to understand, both as a spectator and a player. With that in mind, put your learning cap on and get involved!

Football

What is football?

Succinctly described by the great footballers"as the beautiful game’, football is the only sport in the world which can be accurately defined as a global phenomenon. In 175 countries, football is considered the national sport, representing roughly 90% of the world’s nations. This nominal commitment to football is matched by the world population’s dedication, with statistics indicating a cumulative audience of 30 billion plus for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, and well over a billion tuning in for the Final between Italy  and France
Moreover, football’s popularity is by no means a modern development. Writing in 1928, J.B. Priestley eloquently defined its appeal to previous generations by stating ‘to say that these men paid their shillings to watch twenty-two hirelings kick a ball is merely to say that a violin is wood and catgut, that Hamlet is so much paper and ink’.
That said, the development of globalisation and modern means of communication, coupled with the natural progression beyond its roots in Britain, means football today possesses a status beyond that of a mere pastime. It reflects the modern world, with no national restrictions on players at club level. Indeed, even in international football, foreign coaches are common and have had much success, most notably Otto Rehhagel, the German-born coach who led Greece to glory in the 2004 European Championships. Football also frequently plays a role in the arts, with films like ‘Escape to Victory’ (1981), ‘Bend It Like Beckham’ (2003) and ‘The Arsenal Stadium Mystery’ (1939) and books such as Nick Hornby’s ‘Fever Pitch’. The sport’s growing centrality in film was illustrated in 2007’s ‘Zidane: A 21st Century Portrait’, which showed Real Madrid’s match against Villarreal, but with 17 cameras trained on the great French midfielder
Even religion and politics are not exempt from football’s sphere of influence. The former is clearly evidenced in the creation of the Iglesia Maradoniana in Argentina; a Church devoted to the legendary Diego Maradona (who led Argentina to the World Cup in 1986) and now counts 15,000 people as members. Similarly in political affairs, the Football War between El Salvador and Honduras in June 1969 was so-called because it followed rioting which broke out after El Salvador eliminated Honduras to reach the 1970 World Cup finals.

Football History

Forerunners of football

The creation of football as we understand it today is geographically confined to British shores, but there is extensive evidence of ancient games with the same basic principles as the modern day incarnation. The first of these was identified as part of Shang Dynasty China in the 5th century BC, the game’s objective being to kick a leather ball through a hole in a piece of cloth which between two 30 foot poles. The Tsu’Chu military exercise in 3rd century China was also an interesting elaboration on this theme; the premise once again being to kick a leather ball through a 30-40 centimetre opening.
As the Tsu’Chu exercise lacked the central team element of today’s football, attention has also been given to the Greek and Roman games of episkyros and Harpastum respectively. The latter is particularly interesting as a game played on a rectangular grass surface with a ball roughly equivalent to a softball today.

Medieval football

Despite some signs of the game we love today in the Ancient World, the true development of football came in Medieval Britain by and large, although there are signs of equivalents across Europe (the majority of which were exported). Known as Shrovetide football or Medieval football, the inception point has been claimed as the 3rd century after the defeat of the Romans, but the practice itself was first recorded in the 9th century as part of the Historia Britonum (you can see one or two of the surviving engravings of medieval football at the British Museum).

Medieval Football

Typically played during the annual Carnival, the other tag of ‘mob football’ gives you a sense of what it was actually like to be involved in such games. Held between neighbouring towns and villages with no limit on the number of players and practically no rule book, matches often descended into riotous scenes. Indeed, so violent was medieval football that the Lord Mayor of London actually banned the sport in 1314, claiming ‘there is great noise in the city caused by hustling over large footballs in the fields of the public’.
The extent of its popularity and rambunctiousness is reflected in the fact there were more than 30 royal and local laws which attempted to ban football between 1314 and 1667. However, by the end of the 14th century, the term ‘football’ was well established in England, with Chaucer even referencing it in his Canterbury Tales.
It was by no means solely confined to the lower orders either, as the Great Wardrobe of Henry VIII in 1526 recorded ‘one leather pair (of shoes) for football’, and decrees around 1555 were required to ban football at the colleges of Cambridge and Oxford University. Football was also prevalent beyond English borders, with the game first mentioned in Ireland in the 1527 Statute of Galway and a ball found in Scotland which dates back to 1540 and was supposedly used for football. Across the continent too, other forms of the game were visible like the 16th century Calcio Fiorentino in Florence and La Soule in Normandy.

The establishment of football as a proper sport

The first signs of football developing from its mob roots came with the publication of the naturalist Francis Willoughby’s ‘Book of Sports’ around 1660. In this work, Willughby described the game of ‘football’, identifying the pitch, two ends with gates known as ‘goals’, basic positioning (notably that some of each team’s best players were left to ‘guard the goal’) and the objective as scoring the first goal. Even some details were included, such as avoiding high tackles (referred to as ‘striking’).
That said, it would be almost exactly two centuries until the formation of the modern game took place. The decisive moment was October 26th 1863 when, following a meeting by all the clubs in existence in England at the Freemason’s Tavern in London’s Great Queen Street, the Football Association was founded. Five subsequent meetings over the next two months saw the drawing up of the code, predominantly informed by the recently published Cambridge Rules but excluding regulations on running with the ball ‘properly’ and the acceptance of ‘hacking’.
The latter caused considerable uproar, with the representative from Blackheath Rugby Club claiming ‘hacking is the true football’ and thus voicing an opinion echoed today by many ex-footballers turned television pundits. The meetings also saw the institution of ‘soccer’ as a potential abbreviation for ‘Association Football’ comparable to ‘rugger’ in rugby, again igniting a debate currently raging as a result of football’s increased popularity in America (also home to American Football, a.k.a. Gridiron).
On a practical level, the meetings led to the inauguration of the first coded match (see the section below on Rules) between Sheffield and Nottingham (now Notts County), and the subsequent foundation of Nottingham forest FC in 1865 and many other clubs across England. The FA Challenge Cup followed in 1871 with great success and Aston Villa director William McGregor eventually mooted the concept of a league competition in 1888 in collaboration with 11 other clubs. Initially set up as the Football League, with a 50-50 split between the North and the Midlands on one side and the South on the other, the true First Division only came as a result of the merger with the rivalling Football Alliance (set up in 1889) in 1892.
The rise of club football made international football an obvious idea and, the first international match was played between England and Scotland in Partick in November 1872, ending in a disappointing 0-0. However, Scotland’s influence on England even at this early stage was palpable. After a number of English teams started hiring Scottish players, the debate over football’s amateur status was inflamed and resulted in a move to professionalism in 1885. Initially instituted with a wage limit, this was a massive boon for the northern, predominantly working-class clubs, as opposed to the ‘gentleman’ dominated south. The impact on results for the former was overwhelmingly positive, with the last amateur team to win the FA Cup being the Old Etonians in 1882. Although the wage cap was only abolished in 1959, the foundations of modern-day professional club and international football in Britain had been established.

Football as the world sport

The Emotions of World Football

The popularity of football on the continent was well established by the 19th century, with the first club being Switzerland’s Lausanne Football and Cricket Club, established in 1860. However, the actual development of the sport came much later. The Italian Football Federation (FIGC) was formed in 1898 but the league only came about in 1929, while the first Spanish competition was the Copa del Rey in 1902, followed by La Liga in 1928.
Furthermore, European and worldwide developments were heavily influenced by the aforementioned innovations in England. For example, the first recorded game outside of Europe took place in Argentina in 1867 and involved English workers in the country. Indeed, many clubs across the world today exist due to the efforts of British natives, Corinthians FC being a prime example. Originally an amateur side based in London, they joined the Amateur Football Association rather than aligning themselves with the Football League and the FA Cup. Rather than disband though, Corinthians toured the world, inspiring the small Brazilian side in São Paulo, who renamed themselves Sports Club Corinthians Paulista in 1910 and are now one of the most important clubs in South American football, and even encouraging Spain’s fledgling Real Madrid CF to copy their trademark white shirts. Similarly, arguably the most successful Italian side in the world, AC Milan, were the brainchild of Alfred Edwards who, in 1899, established the Milan Cricket and Football Club. Such was Britain’s worldwide influence that the Argentina Football Association was founded in 1893 by Scotland-born Alexander Watson Hutton.
It is for reasons like these that football can arguably be considered the greatest export in Britain’s long history. What is certainly not in question is the incredible influence Britain had on the development of modern football; laying down the original regulations, establishing the basic competitions and spreading the game quite literally worldwide.

Women’s football
Remarkably, women’s football has been around since the inception of the sport in the late 19th century, and there is evidence of female involvement in all the forerunners of the game as well as medieval football. Although not as popular with spectators today, it was actually extremely popular during World War I, with women’s industry teams like Dick, Kerr’s Ladies from Preston, who also played the first international game with a team from Paris.
The sport was practically ended with the Football Association’s decision to ban women’s football in 1921 due to supposed bad taste. However, it was eventually revived following the formation of the English Women’s FA in 1969 and the lifting of the ban in 1971. On a global level too, the game expanded and, by 1992, Japan was home to the first semi-professional women’s league (the L. League). Today, there are major international competitions, most notably the Women’s World Cup and the European Championships. Furthermore, in the UK, statistics showed well over 100,000 registered women’s footballers at the end of 2005. This was almost a ten-fold increase from the 11,2000 registered in 1993, attesting both to the popularity of women’s football in itself and the cross-gender appeal of the sport generally.

Basketball

Basketball is a athletic sport, usually played on an indoor court in which two competing teams of five layers each attempt to score by throwing an inflated ball so that it descends through one of two baskets suspended, at each end of the court, above their heads. The team scoring the most such throws, through field goals or foul shots, wins the game. Because of its continuous action and frequent scoring, basketball is one of the most popular spectator as well as participant sports in the world.

Basketball, extremely popular around the world, is a court game played by two teams of five players each. The object is to put a ball through a hoop, or basket, and thus score more points than the opposing team.

Although basketball can by played outdoors, it was invented to serve as an exciting indoor exercise for the winter months in a northern climate. It quickly became a spectator sport, however, and now attracts large audiences to gymnasiums and arenas, especially in the United States, South America, and Europe.

The sport is played on the amateur level by high schools, colleges, other groups, and, since 1936, by national teams in the Olympic Games. It also is played by professional athletes, notably in the United States and Europe. The foremost championships contended for are those of the National Basketball Association (U.S. professionals), the National Collegiate Athletic Association (U.S. colleges), and the Olympic Games